The Qur’an teaches that we must believe in all the prophets and messengers, and that they were all chosen to help guide humanity to the ultimate truth of God’s oneness and our servitude to Him. The Qur’an mentions many of the prophets and messengers whom we have been accustomed to at school or at home. The Divine book mentions many of them by name, including Abraham, Moses, Jesus, David, John, Zacharias, Elias, Jacob and Joseph, may God’s peace be upon them all. The role of these messengers and prophets is to be a manifestation of what has been revealed or inspired to them, and to exemplify God-consciousness, piety and compassion.
The Qur’an mentions the Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ name five times,[1] and confirms that the book was revealed unto him via the angel Gabriel. The Qur’an affirms that Muhammad ﷺ is God’s final messenger.[2] From this perspective, intellectually affirming this status of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ is quite simple. Once the Qur’an has been established as a Divine book, it necessarily follows that whatever it says will be the truth. Since it mentions Muhammad ﷺ as God’s messenger, and what comes from truth is true, then the fact that Muhammad ﷺ was a recipient of Divine revelation is also true. Despite this undeniable conclusion, the fact that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was the final messenger of God can also be deduced from his experiences, teachings, character and the impact he had—and continues to have—on the world.
The Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ life experiences comprise one of the strongest arguments in support of his claim—and by extension the Qur’an’s claim—that he was God’s final messenger. Once an analysis of his life is performed, to conclude that he was lying or deluded would be tantamount to concluding that no one has ever spoken the truth. It would be the epistemic equivalent of denying that the person you call your mother gave birth to you. The teachings of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ cover a wide range of topics including spirituality, society, economy and psychology. Studying his statements, and taking a holistic approach to his teachings, will force any rational mind to conclude that there was something very unique and special about this man. Significantly, scrutinising his character in the context of a myriad of difficult situations and circumstances will facilitate the conclusion that he had unparalleled levels of tolerance, forbearance and humility—key signs of a prophetic character. Muhammad’s ﷺ life and teachings, however, not only influenced the Arab world, but had a tremendous impact on the whole of humanity. Simply put, Muhammad ﷺ was responsible for unprecedented tolerance, progress and justice.
Denying Muhammad ﷺ, denying your mother
As mentioned in my essay, God’s Testimony, the only real source of knowledge that we have to confirm that the lady we call our mother gave birth to us, is testimonial knowledge. Even if we claim to have a birth certificate, hospital records, or a DNA test certificate, these still are all examples of testimonial knowledge. You have to believe in the say-so of others. In this case, the one who filled in the birth certificate, the one responsible for the hospital records, and the person who completed the DNA test certificate. Fundamentally, it is just based on a testimonial transmission; there is not a shred of physical evidence that can empirically verify the claim that your mother gave birth to you. Even if you do the DNA test yourself (which is highly unlikely), your conviction now that she gave birth to you is not based on the fact that you can potentially acquire the results. The irony is that the only reason you believe a DNA test can be used to verify that your mother gave birth to you is based on the testimonial transmission of some authority telling you so, because you haven’t done it yourself yet. So, from an epistemic perspective, the basis for your belief that your mother gave birth to you is based on a few instances of testimonial transmission. Since we have far more authentic testimonial evidence to conclude that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was the final prophet of God, then to deny Muhammad ﷺ would be equivalent to denying your own mother.
The argument
The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ claimed prophethood over 1,400 years ago with the following simple, yet profound message: There is none worthy of worship but God, and the Prophet Muhammad is the final messenger of God.
The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ became a prophet at the age of 40, after spending some time meditating and reflecting in a cave outside Mecca. The dawn of prophethood began with the revelation of the first verses of the Qur’an. Its message was simple: our ultimate purpose in life is to worship God. Worship is a comprehensive term in the Islamic spiritual tradition; it means to know, love, obey, and dedicate all acts of worship to God alone.
To test the truth of his message and claim to prophethood, we must rationally investigate the historical narratives and testimonies concerning the life of the Prophet ﷺ. Once we do this, we will be in a position to come to a balanced conclusion in this regard.
The Qur’an provides a rational approach to testing the claim of the Prophet ﷺ. It argues that the Prophet ﷺ is not a liar, mad, astray, or deluded, and denies that he speaks from his own desire. The Qur’an affirms that he is indeed the messenger of God; therefore, he is speaking the truth:
“Your companion is not mad.”[3]
“Your companion has not strayed; he is not deluded; he does not speak from his own desire.”[4]
“Muhammad is the messenger of God.”[5]
We can summarise the argument in the following way:
- The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was either a liar, deluded, or speaking the truth.
- The Prophet ﷺ could not have been a liar or deluded.
- Therefore, the Prophet ﷺ was speaking the truth.
Was he a liar?
Early historical sources on the Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ life illustrate the integrity of his character. He was not a liar and to assert as much is indefensible. The reasons for this abound—for instance, he was known even by the enemies of his message as the “Trustworthy”[6].
The Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ message undermined the economic and power structures of society. Seventh century Meccan society was based on trade and commerce. The leaders of Meccan society would attract these traders with the 360 idols they had in the Ka’bah—the cube-shaped structure built by Abraham as a house of worship. The Prophet’s ﷺ message was simple, yet it powerfully challenged 7th century Arabian polytheism. The leaders of that society initially mocked him, thinking the Prophet ﷺ would not have an impact. However, as his message was gradually taking root with high-profile conversions, the leadership started to abuse the Prophet ﷺ, both physically and psychologically.
He was persecuted for his beliefs, boycotted and exiled from his beloved city—Mecca. He was starved of food and stoned by children to the point where blood drenched his legs. His wife passed away and his beloved companions were tortured and persecuted.[7] Further proof of the Prophet’s ﷺ reliability and credibility is substantiated by the fact that a liar usually lies for some worldly gain. Muhammad ﷺ suffered tremendously for his message[8] and rejected outright the riches and power he was offered to stop promulgating his message. He was uncompromising in his call to God’s oneness.
Montgomery Watt, late Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic Studies, explores this in Muhammad at Mecca and argues that calling the Prophet ﷺ an impostor is irrational: “His readiness to undergo persecution for his beliefs, the high moral character of the men who believed in him and looked up to him as a leader, and the greatness of his ultimate achievement—all argue his fundamental integrity. To suppose Muhammad an impostor raises more problems than it solves.”[9]
Was he deluded?
To claim that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was deluded is to argue that he was misled to believe that he was the messenger of God. If someone is deluded, they have a strong conviction in a belief despite any evidence to the contrary. Another way of looking at the issue of delusion is that when someone is deluded, they speak falsehood whilst believing it to be true. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ had many experiences during his career that, if he were deluded, he would have used as evidence to support his delusion. One example is the passing away of his son, Ibrahim. The boy died at an early age and the day he died there was a solar eclipse. Many Arabs thought that God made the eclipse happen because His prophet’s son passed away. If the Prophet ﷺ were deluded, he would have used such an opportunity to reinforce his claim. However, he did not and rejected the people’s assertions. The Prophet ﷺ replied to them in the following way: “The sun and the moon do not eclipse because of the death of someone from the people but they are two signs amongst the signs of God. When you see them, stand up and pray.”[10]
The Prophet ﷺ foretold many things that would happen to his community after his death. These events occurred exactly as Muhammad ﷺ stated, and this is not consistent with a deluded individual. For example:
The Mongol invasion
Six hundred years or so after the death of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, the Mongols invaded the Muslim lands and massacred millions of people. A significant milestone in the invasion was the ransacking of Baghdad. At that time, it was known as a city of learning and culture. The Mongols arrived in Baghdad in 1258 and spent a whole week spilling blood. They were hell-bent on demolishing the city. Thousands of books were destroyed and up to one million people were killed. This was a major event in Islamic history.
The Mongols were non-Arabs who had flat noses, small eyes, and their boots were made of hair; the Mongols had fur covers over their boots called degtii. This was foretold by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ hundreds of years before the Mongol invasion: “The Hour will not be established till you fight with the Khudh and the Kirman from among the non-Arabs. They will be of red faces, flat noses and small eyes; their faces will look like flat shields, and their shoes will be of hair.”[11]
Competing in constructing tall buildings
“Now, tell me of the Last Hour,” said the man.
The Prophet ﷺ replied, “The one asked knows no more of it than the one asking.”
“Then tell me about its signs,” said the man.
The Prophet ﷺ replied, “That you see barefoot, unclothed, destitute herders competing in the construction of tall buildings.”[12]
Notice the detail in the prophecy: a specific people were identified; barefoot, unclothed, destitute herders. According to Islamic scholarship this is an obvious reference to the Bedouin Arabs.[13] The Prophet ﷺ could have easily played it safe by using more general language such as, “That you see competition in the construction of tall buildings….” This would have been flexible enough to be applied to anyone in the world. Today we find in the Arabian Peninsula that the Arabs who used to be impoverished herders of camels and sheep are competing in building the tallest tower blocks. Today the Burj Khalifa in Dubai is the world’s tallest man-made structure at 828 metres.[14] A short time after it was completed, a rival family in Saudi Arabia announced that they would build a taller one (1,000 metres), the Kingdom Tower (also known as Jeddah Tower)—currently estimated to be completed in 2019. Thus, they are literally competing with each other over who can build the tallest building.[15]
Now, what is remarkable is that until only 50 or 60 years ago, the people of the region hardly had any houses at all. In fact, most of them were still Bedouins, living in tents. The discovery of oil in the 20th century led to the transformation of the region. If not for oil, chances are the region would still be the barren desert that it was at the time of the revelation of the Qur’an. If this were mere guesswork on his part, the discovery of oil would represent a massive stroke of luck. Moreover, if Prophet Muhammad ﷺ were merely guessing, wouldn’t it have made more sense to relate this prophecy to the superpowers of his time—Rome and Persia—who (unlike the Arabs) already had a tendency to construct extravagant buildings and palaces?[16]
Tunnels in Mecca and tall buildings surpassing its mountains
The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ prophesied tunnels in Mecca and that the buildings of the city would surpass the tops of the mountains: “When you see tunnels built in Mecca and you see its buildings taller than its mountains, know that the matter is close at hand.”[17]
Today in 2018, anyone who visits the city—and you can find pictures online—can see these buildings that surpass some of the mountains of Mecca.
The Arabic word for ‘tunnels’ used in this narration specifically refers to tunnels that have water passing through them. This can refer to Mecca’s sewer system that was built hundreds of years after the death of the Prophet ﷺ.
There are many more prophesies that can be found in the authentic narrations attributed to the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. A few have been brought to your attention to raise a conceptual point: the accurate foretelling of the future is evidence to support someone’s truthfulness, not delusion.
The Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ teachings, character and unprecedented global impact are also strong evidence to show that he was not deluded and therefore must have been speaking the truth. These will be elaborated on later in this essay.
Was he both lying and deluded?
It is not possible for an individual to be both deluded and a liar. Lying is done with intent, whereas a delusion is when a person believes in something that is actually not true. The two are diametrically opposed phenomena. The assertion that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was both lying and deluded is logically impossible, as the Prophet ﷺ could not have been intentionally untruthful about his claims and at the same time believe them to be true.
He was speaking the truth
Considering what has been discussed so far, the most reasonable conclusion is that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was speaking the truth. This conclusion is echoed by the historian Dr. William Draper: “Four years after the death of Justinian, A.D. 569, was born in Mecca, in Arabia, the man who, of all men, has exercised the greatest influence upon the human race… To be the religious head of many empires, to guide the daily life of one-third of the human race, may perhaps justify the title of a messenger of God.”[18]
Objections
Before we discuss the profound teachings, sublime character and the unprecedented impact of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, there are some objections that need to be addressed.
Legend
An objection to the argument that has been presented includes that there can be another option to explain the Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ claim to prophethood. This additional option is that the Prophet’s ﷺ claim is based on a legend. In other words, it has no basis in established history. This objection maintains that the narratives and testimonies that underpin the life of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ cannot be trusted or independently verified. In essence, the proponent of this contention does not trust Islamic history.
The ‘legend’ objection is incoherent and exposes a lack of knowledge concerning how scholars ensured the historical integrity of the sources of the life of the Prophet ﷺ. The Islamic approach to preserving history is based on two main elements: the isnaad, known as ‘the chain of narration’, and the matn, meaning ‘the text or report’. There are robust criteria used to establish a sound chain of narration and a report. This is not the place to go into detail about this Islamic science (referred to as ‘ilm ul-hadith in the Islamic intellectual tradition; the knowledge of narrations); however, a brief summary of what it entails will be enough to demonstrate its robustness.
- In order for the chain of narration to be authentic, many rational criteria for each narrator would have to be fulfilled. Some of these include:
- The name, nickname, title, parentage and occupation of the narrator should be known.
- The original narrator should have stated that he heard the narration directly from the Prophet ﷺ.
- If a narrator referred his narration to another narrator, the two should have lived in the same period and have had the possibility of meeting each other.
- At the time of hearing and transmitting the narration, the narrator should have been physically and mentally capable of understanding and remembering it.
- The narrator should have been known as a pious and virtuous person.
- The narrator should not have been accused of having lied, given false evidence or committed a crime.
- The narrator should not have spoken against other reliable people.
- In order for the text of the report to be accepted, a number of rational criteria must be fulfilled. Some of these include:
- The text should have been stated in plain and simple language as this was the undisputed manner of speech of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.
- A text which referred to actions that should have been commonly known and practised by others but were not known and practised, was rejected.
- A text contrary to the basic teachings of the Qur’an was rejected.
- A text inconsistent with well-known historical facts was rejected.[19]
Unsound logic
Another objection to the argument is that its logical form is unsound. For example, it could be that the Prophet Muhamad ﷺ was not lying from the perspective of being immoral. Rather, he was falsely attributing to himself prophethood for a greater good. As a social reformer, he believed that he had to make such a radical claim to transform the immoral and decadent society he was living in. This would not make him deluded, as he knew that he was not speaking the truth, and it would not make him a liar from the perspective of being immoral. He would be a moral reformer, and like most reformers he had to choose the lesser of the two evils for a greater good.
This interesting objection is misplaced for a few reasons. Firstly, it is irrational to assert that a claim to prophethood would be required to make the necessary moral changes. In actual fact, the Prophet’s ﷺ claim to receiving Divine revelation was the very thing that initially prevented him from gaining any ground in changing society. He was mocked, ridiculed and abused. A reformer would not make up such a claim, especially if that claim created more obstacles to reaching his objectives. Secondly, the Prophet ﷺ went through immense hardship, yet he did not compromise or sacrifice his message. He was offered conditional political power, which meant he could change the moral fabric of society, yet he rejected power because his acceptance would mean that he would have to abandon his noble call that there is no deity worthy of worship except God. If he had been a moral reformer he would have amended his strategy. However, he did not.
The teachings, character and impact of the Prophet ﷺ
The teachings of Muhammad ﷺ are not those of someone who is deluded or a liar. Amongst many of his teachings, he taught humanity about compassion, mercy, humility, peace, love and how to benefit and serve others. The Prophet’s ﷺ character was one of perfection. He reached the summit of virtues; he was compassionate, humble, tolerant, just and showed great humanity, forbearance and piety. His guidance also had an unprecedented impact on the world. The Prophet’s ﷺ profound leadership and sublime teachings of tolerance, justice, progress, freedom of belief and many other areas of life strongly indicate that he was not deluded; rather, he was a man of truth.
His teachings and character
The Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ teachings and character are clear signs that he was a mercy to mankind and a noble human being given a Divinely inspired message to take people out of darkness, into the light of truth. Below are selections of his teachings and examples of his sublime character. I believe they speak for themselves. The more we study, reflect and ponder on the Prophetic wisdom, the more we will fall in love with and appreciate who Muhammad ﷺ really was:
His teachings
Mercy and compassion
“The Merciful One shows mercy to those who are themselves merciful [to others]. So show mercy to whatever is on Earth, then He who is in heaven will show mercy to you.”[20]
“God is compassionate and loves compassion.”[21]
“He is not of us who has no compassion for our young and does not honour our elderly.”[22]
“May God have mercy on a man who is kind when he buys, when he sells, and when he asks for a payment.”[23]
Contentment and spirituality
“Richness is not having many possessions. Rather, true richness is the richness of the soul.”[24]
“Indeed, God does not look towards your bodies nor towards your appearances. But, He looks towards your hearts and your deeds.”[25]
“Do not talk too much without remembrance of God. Indeed, excessive talking without remembrance of God hardens the heart. And indeed the furthest of people from God are the harsh-hearted.”[26]
“Be mindful of God, you will find Him before you. Get to know God in prosperity and He will know you in adversity. Know that what has passed you by was not going to befall you; and that what has befallen you was not going to pass you by. And know that victory comes with patience, relief with affliction, and ease with hardship.”[27]
“Islam has been built on five [pillars]: testifying that there is no deity worthy of worship except God and that Muhammad is the Messenger of God, establishing the prayer, paying the obligatory charity, making the pilgrimage to the House, and fasting in Ramadan.”[28]
“God, the Exalted, has said: ‘O son of Adam, I forgive you as long as you pray to Me and hope for My forgiveness, whatever sins you have committed. O son of Adam, I do not care if your sins reach the height of the heaven; then you ask for my forgiveness, I would forgive you. O son of Adam, if you come to Me with an Earth load of sins, and meet Me associating nothing with Me, I would match it with an Earth load of forgiveness.’”[29]
“God says: ‘I am as My servant thinks I am [or: as he expects Me to be]. I am with him when he makes mention of Me. If he makes mention of Me to himself, I make mention of him to Myself. And if he makes mention of Me in an assembly, I make mention of him in an assembly better than it. And if he draws near to Me a hand’s span, I draw near to him an arm’s length. And if he draws near to Me an arm’s length, I draw near to him a fathom’s length. And if he comes to Me walking, I go to him at speed.’”[30]
Love
“By the one who has my soul in His hand, you will not enter the Garden until you believe, and you will not believe until you love one another. Shall I point out to you something, which will make you love one another if you do it? Make the greeting of peace be widespread among you.”[31]
“The servant of God does not reach the reality of faith until he loves for the people what he loves for himself of goodness.”[32]
“Love for the people what you love for yourself and you will be a believer. Behave well with your neighbours and you will be a Muslim.”[33]
“There have come to you the diseases of the nations before you: envy and hatred, and hatred is the razor. It shaves the religion and it does not shave hair. By the one in whose hand is the soul of Muhammad, you will not believe until you love one another. Shall I tell you something which, if you did it, you would love each other? Spread peace between yourselves.”[34]
“None of you has faith until he loves for the people what he loves for himself.”[35]
“When a man loves his brother he should tell him that he loves him.”[36]
“Love for humanity what you love for yourself.”[37]
“The best deed after belief in God is benevolent love towards people.”[38]
Community and peace
The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was asked: “What sort of deeds or traits of Islam are good?” The Messenger of God replied: “To feed others, and to greet those whom you know and those whom you do not know.”[39]
“He who makes peace between the people by inventing good information or saying good things is not a liar.”[40]
“He who does not thank people, does not thank God.”[41]
“By God, he does not [truly] believe! By God, he does not [truly] believe! By God, he does not [truly] believe!” Someone asked: “Who, O Messenger of God?” He said: “He whose neighbour is not safe from his mischief.”[42]
“All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over a black nor a black has any superiority over a white, except by piety and good action.”[43]
“The believer is not he who eats his fill while his neighbour is hungry.”[44]
Charity and humanitarianism
“God said: ‘Spend [i.e. on charity], O son of Adam, and I shall spend on you.’”[45]
“Charity does not diminish wealth.”[46]
“Visit the sick, feed the hungry and free the captives.”[47]
“Make things easy, and do not make them difficult, and give good tidings and do not make people run away.”[48]
“Give the labourer his wages before his sweat dries.”[49]
“Every act of goodness is charity.”[50]
Character and manners
“The believers who show the most perfect faith are those who have the best character, and the best of you are those who are best to their wives.”[51]
“[God] has revealed to me that you should adopt humility so that no one oppresses another.”[52]
“Neither nurse grudge nor sever [the ties of kinship], nor nurse enmity, and become as fellow brothers and servants of God.”[53]
“He who truly believes in God and the last Day should speak good or keep silent.”[54]
“The best among you is he who has the best manners.”[55]
“Beware of suspicion, for suspicion is the worst of false tales.”[56]
“The strong man is not the one who is strong in wrestling, but the one who controls himself in anger.”[57]
Environment and animals
“If the Hour [the day of Resurrection] is about to be established and one of you is holding a palm shoot, let him take advantage of even one second before the Hour is established to plant it.”[58]
“If a Muslim plants a tree or sows seeds, and then a bird, or a person or an animal eats from it, it is regarded as a charitable gift (sadaqah) for him.”[59]
“Removing harmful things from the road is an act of charity.”[60]
The companions asked the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, “O God’s Messenger! Is there a reward for us in serving the animals?” He replied: “There is a reward for serving any living being.”[61]
“Whoever kills a sparrow or anything bigger than that without a just cause, God will hold him accountable on the Day of Judgment.”[62]
“A prostitute saw a dog lolling around a well on a hot day and hanging his tongue from thirst. She drew some water for it in her shoe, so God forgave her.”[63]
Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-`Aas reported that the Prophet ﷺ passed one day by Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas while he was performing wudoo’ (ritual ablution). The Prophet ﷺ asked Sa’d, “Why this wastage?” Sa’d replied “Is there wastage in ritual ablution also?” The Prophet ﷺ said, “Yes, even if you are at a flowing river.”[64]
His character
The following testimonies and narrations describe some of the qualities of the character of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ:
Forbearance, forgiveness and compassion
When the Prophet ﷺ had his tooth broken and his face cut during one of the battles when he was defending the Muslims and non-Muslims under his protection, his companions asked him to curse the aggressors. However, he replied: “I was not sent to curse, but I was sent as a summoner and as a mercy. O God, guide my people for they do not know.”[65]
Anas ibn Malik said, “I served the Messenger of God ﷺ for ten years and he never said ‘Uff!’ to me. He did not say about anything I had done, ‘Why did you do it?’ nor about anything I had not done, ‘Why did you not do it?’”[66]
Anas said, “I was with the Prophet ﷺ when he was wearing a thick cloak. A bedouin pulled him so violently by his cloak that the edge of the cloak made a mark on the side of his neck. Then he said, ‘Muhammad! Let me load up these two camels of mine with the property of God you have in your possession! You will not let me load up from your property or your father’s property.’ The Prophet ﷺ was silent and then he said, ‘Shall I take retaliation from you, bedouin, for what you have done to me?’ He replied, ‘No.’ The Prophet ﷺ asked, ‘Why not?’ The bedouin replied, ‘Because you do not repay back a bad action with a bad action.’ The Prophet ﷺ laughed and ordered that one camel be loaded up with barley and the other camel with dates.’”[67]
Once a man demanding repayment for a debt seized hold of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and behaved very badly. The Prophet’s ﷺ companion was present and chased him off and spoke harshly to him. However, the Prophet ﷺ said, “He and I needed something else from you. Command me to repay well and command him to ask for his debt well.” The Prophet ﷺ repaid the loan and added more to it because his companion had alarmed him. The man, known as Zayd ibn Sa’na, later became a Muslim. Zayd explains: “There were only two remaining signs of Prophethood which I had not yet recognised in Muhammad or noticed: forbearance overcoming quick-temperedness and extreme ignorance only increasing him in forbearance. I tested him for these and I found him as described.”[68]
Anas ibn Malik recalls the compassion of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ towards children: “I never saw anyone who was more compassionate towards children than God’s Messenger ﷺ.”[69]
The Prophet’s ﷺ companions were killed and tortured; he himself was boycotted, starved and abused. There were many injustices and wrongs committed against the Prophet ﷺ and his followers. However, when he peacefully took Mecca, known as the conquest of Mecca, he delivered a universal forgiveness and pardon. He described the day as a day of “piety, faithfulness and loyalty.”[70]
Appearance and approachability
The Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ companions narrate about his appearance:
Abdullah ibn al-Harith said, “I did not see anyone who smiled more than the Messenger of God.”[71]
Al-Baraa’ ibn ‘Aazib narrated, “The Messenger of God ﷺ was the most handsome of all people, and had the best appearance.”[72]
Jaabir ibn Samurah narrated, “I saw the Messenger of God ﷺ on a brightly moonlit night wearing a red garment. Then I started looking at him and at the moon. And for me, he was more beautiful than the moon.”[73]
Ali ibn Abi Talib narrated, “Those who saw him suddenly stood in awe of him and those who shared his acquaintanceship loved him. Those who described him said they had never seen anyone like him before or since.”[74]
Umm Ma’bad al-Khuza’iyah described to her husband what the Prophet ﷺ looked like: “He was innocently bright and had broad countenance. His manners were fine. Neither his belly bulged out nor was his head deprived of hair. He had black attractive eyes finely arched by continuous eyebrows. His hair glossy and black, inclined to curl, he wore long. He was extremely commanding. His head was large, well-formed and set on a slender neck. His expression was pensive and contemplative, serene and sublime. The stranger was fascinated from the distance, but no sooner he became intimate with him than this fascination was changed into attachment and respect. His expression was very sweet and distinct. His speech was well set and free from the use of superfluous words, as if it were a rosary of beads. His stature was neither too high nor too small to look repulsive… He was always surrounded by his Companions. Whenever he uttered something, the listeners would hear him with rapt attention and whenever he issued any command, they vied with each other in carrying it out. He was a master and commander. His utterances were marked by truth and sincerity, free from all kinds of falsehoods and lies.”[75]
Humility and modesty
The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ said, “Do not exaggerate in praising me as the Christians praised the son of Mary, for I am only a servant. So, call me the servant of God and His Messenger.”[76]
The Prophet’s ﷺ wife, Aishah (may God be pleased with her) was asked, “What did God’s messenger do at home?” She said, “He was like any other human being, cleaning and mending his garment, milking the goat, mending his shoes, serving himself, and be of service to his family, till he hears the call to prayer, then he goes out [to pray in the mosque].”[77]
The Prophet ﷺ showed humility when he said, “I am but a man like yourselves. I am prone to forget just as you are.”[78]
When the Prophet ﷺ saw a man trembling with fear when he saw him, he said to him, “Relax, I am not a king; I am the son of a woman from Quraysh [an Arab people] who would eat dried/jerked meat.”[79]
The Prophet ﷺ would invoke his Lord saying, “O God, make me live humbly and make me die humbly, and gather me among the humble on the day of resurrection.”[80]
Abu Sa‘eed al-Khudri said, “I saw the messenger of God ﷺ prostrating in mud and water so that I saw the marks of mud on his forehead.”[81]
Anas said, “The Prophet ﷺ would be invited to eat barley bread and rancid fat and he would accept it.”[82]
Aisha (may God be pleased with her) said, “At our home [that is, the home of the Prophet’s household], fire would not be kindled (sometimes) for a whole month; we subsisted merely on water and dates.”[83]
There are many other prophetic teachings and narrations relating to some of the actions of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ that on the surface may seem harsh. However, when someone takes the socio-political context and the existing moral variables into consideration, it will facilitate the conclusion that he was the most compassionate, ethical and just human being. For example, the Prophet ﷺ was relentless in battle. One must understand that he was defending the community (that consisted of Muslims and non-Muslims) and that battle was the final resort. This allows us to acknowledge and praise his bravery, valour and courage rather than attribute anything negative to him. This is not the place to go into detail, however further study and research will substantiate the above points.
Muhammad’s ﷺ impact on the world
The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was truly a mercy to mankind. This assertion is not only justified by his message and his teachings, but it also includes his unprecedented impact on our world. There are two key reasons why his teachings on a social level were so transformative: the justice and compassion of Islam.
Compassion and justice are its central values, expressed through a sincere belief in the existence and worship of one God. By singling Him out for worship and being conscious of one’s accountability, a Muslim is encouraged to act compassionately, fairly and justly. The Qur’an clearly states in this regard:
“O you who believe, be steadfast in your devotion to God and bear witness impartially: do not let the hatred of others lead you away from justice, but adhere to justice, for that is closer to being God-conscious. Be mindful of God: God is well acquainted with all that you do.”[84]
“O you who believe, uphold justice and bear witness to God, even if it is against yourselves, your parents, or your close relatives. Whether the person is rich or poor, God can best take care of both. Refrain from following your own desire, so that you can act justly—if you distort or neglect justice, God is fully aware of what you do.”[85]
“What will explain to you what the steep path is? It is to free a slave, to feed at a time of hunger an orphaned relative or a poor person in distress, and to be one of those who believe and urge one another to steadfastness and compassion.”[86]
Tolerance and coexistence
When these values were practised and internalised, the Muslims created a society that was unmatched in history. At a time when Europe was entrenched in sectarian violence, racism, tribalism and hatred, the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ were a light for the world. Consider the treatment of minorities such as the Jews and the Christians. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ in the treaty of Medina said: “It is incumbent on all the Muslims to help and extend sympathetic treatment to the Jews who have entered into an agreement with us. Neither an oppression of any type should be perpetrated on them nor their enemy be helped against them.”[87]
The popular historian Karen Armstrong points out how the values of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ established an unprecedented coexistence: “The Muslims had established a system that enabled Jews, Christians, and Muslims to live in Jerusalem together for the first time.”[88]
The Jewish academic historian Amnon Cohen illustrates the practical application of Islamic values, and how the Jews of Ottoman Jerusalem were free and contributed to society:
“No one interfered with their internal organisation or their external cultural and economic activities… The Jews of Ottoman Jerusalem enjoyed religious and administrative autonomy within an Islamic state, and as a constructive, dynamic element of the local economy and society they could—and actually did—contribute to its functioning.”[89]
‘Umar ibn al-Khattab, the companion and student of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, granted the Christians of Palestine religious freedom, security and peace. His treaty with the Palestinian Christians stated:
“This is the protection which the servant of God, the Leader of the faithful, grants to the people of Palestine. Thus, protection is for their lives, property, church, cross, for the healthy and sick and for all their co-religionists. In this way their churches shall not be turned into dwelling houses, nor will they be pulled down, nor any injury will be done to them or to their enclosures, nor to their cross, and nor will anything be deducted from their wealth. No restrictions shall be made regarding their religious ceremonies.”[90]
In 869 CE, patriarch Theodosius of Jerusalem confirmed the Muslims’ adherence to the values of their beloved Prophet ﷺ: “The Saracens [i.e. the Muslims] show us great goodwill. They allow us to build our churches and to observe our own customs without hindrance.”[91]
These historical narratives are not historical accidents. They are grounded in the Prophet’s ﷺ timeless values of tolerance and mercy.
Safety and protection
Europe in the 7th century was in utter darkness when it came to ensuring the safety and protection of minorities and foreign people living in or visiting a particular land. However, the Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ teachings ensured that minorities were protected and lived in peace:
“He who harms a person under covenant, or charges him more than he can pay, I will argue against him on the Day of Judgement.”[92]
“He who hurts a non-Muslim under protection hurts me.”[93]
The 13th century jurist Al-Qarafi explains the above Prophetic teachings:
“The covenant of protection imposes upon us certain obligations toward the non-Muslims under Muslim protection. They are our neighbours, under our shelter and protection upon the guarantee of God, His Messenger, and the religion of Islam. Whoever violates these obligations against any one of them by so much as an abusive word, by slandering his reputation, or by doing him some injury or assisting in it, has breached the guarantee of God, His Messenger ﷺ, and the religion of Islam.”[94]
In light of the above, it is no wonder the Qur’an describes the Prophet ﷺ as “a mercy for the worlds”[95] and that God’s mercy “encompasses all things”[96].
When the Prophet’s ﷺ teachings were realised in history, minorities were protected, experienced peace and praised the Muslim authorities. For example, Bernard the Wise, a pilgrim monk, visited Egypt and Palestine in the reign of Al-Mu’tazz (866-9 CE), and he had the following to say:
“…the Christians and the Pagans [i.e. Muslims] have this kind of peace between them there that if I was going on a journey, and on the way the camel or donkey which bore my poor luggage were to die, and I was to abandon all my goods without any guardian, and go to the city for another pack animal, when I came back I would find all my property uninjured: such is the peace there.”[97]
The unprecedented impact and effect of Islamic values made people prefer the mercy and tolerance of Islam. Reinhart Dozy, an authority on early Islamic Spain, explains:
“…the unbounded tolerance of the Arabs must also be taken into account. In religious matters they put pressure on no man… Christians preferred their rule to that of the Franks.”[98]
Professor Thomas Arnold, commenting on an Islamic source, states that Christians were happy and at peace with Islam to the point where they “called down blessings on the heads of the Muslims.”[99]
Freedom of belief
During a time when freedom of belief was a relatively alien concept, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ created a society that never forced anyone to convert to Islam. Forced conversion is utterly forbidden in Islam. This is due to the following Qur’anic verse: “There is no compulsion in religion: true guidance has become distinct from error….”[100]
Michael Bonner, an authority on the history of early Islam, explains the historical manifestation of the verse above: “To begin with, there was no forced conversion, no choice between ‘Islam and the Sword’. Islamic law, following a clear Qur’anic principle (2:256), prohibited any such things: dhimmis [non-Muslims under Muslim protection] must be allowed to practice their religion.”[101]
Economic liberation
The teachings of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ caused the economic liberation of people under his leadership. Taxes were low and anyone who could not afford to pay their taxes would not have to pay anything.[102]
It was incumbent on the authorities to ensure that everyone, including non-Muslim citizens, had enough to feed their families and maintain a decent standard of living. For example, ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, one of the Muslim leaders, wrote to his agent in Iraq: “Search for the people of the covenant in your area who may have grown old, and are unable to earn, and provide them with regular stipends from the treasury to take care of their needs.”[103]
A practical manifestation of the Prophet’s ﷺ teachings can be found in the following letter written by a rabbi in 1453. He was urging his co-religionists to travel to Muslim lands after Europe’s persecution of the Jews, he was telling them that they were economically emancipated: “Here in the land of the Turks we have nothing to complain of. We possess great fortunes; much gold and silver are in our hands. We are not oppressed with heavy taxes and our commerce is free and unhindered. Rich are the fruits of the Earth. Everything is cheap and every one of us lives in peace and freedom….”[104]
Interracial co-operation
Far from being a source of racial conflict, the Prophet ﷺ offered a viable model of interracial co-operation. The Qur’an eloquently states: “People, we created you all from a single man and a single woman, and made you into races and tribes so that you should recognize one another. In God’s eyes, the most honoured of you are the ones most mindful of Him: God is all knowing, all aware.”[105]
The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ made it clear that racism has no place in Islam: “All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over a black nor has a black any superiority over a white, except by piety and good action.”[106]
As Hamilton A. R. Gibb, a historian on Orientalism, stated:
“But Islam has a still further service to render to the cause of humanity. It stands after all nearer to the real East than Europe does, and it possesses a magnificent tradition of interracial understanding and co-operation. No other society has such a record of success uniting in an equality of status, of opportunity, and of endeavour so many and so various races of mankind… Islam has still the power to reconcile apparently irreconcilable elements of race and tradition. If ever the opposition of the great societies of East and West is to be replaced by co-operation, the mediation of Islam is an indispensable condition. In its hands lies very largely the solution of the problem with which Europe is faced in its relation with East. If they unite, the hope of a peaceful issue is immeasurably enhanced—but if Europe, by rejecting the co-operation of Islam, throws it into the arms of its rivals, the issue can only be disastrous for both.”[107]
The respected historian A. J. Toynbee also confirms: “The extinction of race consciousness as between Muslims is one of the outstanding achievements of Islam and in the contemporary world there is, as it happens, a crying need for the propagation of this Islamic virtue….”[108]
Scientific progress
The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was the bearer of the message of the Qur’an, both in word and deed. His message and teachings created the much-needed tranquillity, tolerance and peace that facilitated one of the most successful civilisations in history. While Europe was plunged in the darkness of ignorance, the Islamic civilisation inspired by the Prophet ﷺ produced a society that was a beacon of light for the entire world. Historian of science Victor Robinson succinctly summarises the contrast between medieval Europe and Islamic Spain:
“Europe was darkened at sunset, Cordova shone with public lamps; Europe was dirty, Cordova built a thousand baths; Europe was covered with vermin, Cordova changed its undergarments daily; Europe lay in mud, Cordova’s streets were paved; Europe’s palaces had smoke-holes in the ceiling, Cordova’s arabesques were exquisite; Europe’s nobility could not sign its name, Cordova’s children went to school; Europe’s monks could not read the baptismal service, Cordova’s teachers created a library of Alexandrian dimensions.”[109]
Islamic civilisation produced advances in mathematics, medicine, astronomy and chemistry. Consider the mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, who played a significant role in the development of algebra. He also developed the idea of algorithms, which has earned him the title of the grandfather of computer science, because without algorithms there would be no computers. Abu al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi has been described as the greatest medieval surgeon because of his inventions in surgical procedures and instruments.
Muslims and Arab scientists who understood and internalised Islamic values were also pioneers in dealing with mental and psychological disorders. For example, in the 8th century, the physician Razi built the first psychiatric ward in Baghdad. The 11th century physician Ibn Sina (known in the West as Avicenna—the founder of modern medicine) understood that most mental illness is physiologically based.[110]
Interestingly, Abu Zayd al-Balkhi, a 9th century physician, wrote a book on what is now known as cognitive behavioural therapy. His book, Sustenance of the Soul, was probably the first written account to distinguish between endogenous and reactive depression.[111]
These pioneers and Muslim intellectuals were directly influenced by the values of Islam. These include the words of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ that encourage seeking the cure for illnesses: “There is no disease that God has sent down except that He also has sent down its treatment.”[112]
The Qur’an encourages reading, acquiring knowledge, reflection and the empirical sciences. It is a book that mentions knowledge over 100 times and makes us reflect upon ourselves, and the world around us:
“The example of this worldly life is but like rain which We have sent down from the sky that the plants of the Earth absorb—those from which men and livestock eat—until, when the Earth has taken on its adornment and is beautified and its people suppose that they have capability over it, there comes to it Our command by night or by day, and We make it as a harvest, as if it had not flourished yesterday. Thus do We explain in detail the signs for a people who give thought.”[113]
“Read! In the name of your Lord who created: He created man from a clinging form. Read! Your Lord is the Most Bountiful One who taught by [means of] the pen, who taught man what he did not know.”[114]
“Say, ‘How can those who know be equal to those who do not know?’ Only those who have understanding will take heed.”[115]
“Then do they not look at the camels—how they are created? And at the sky—how it is raised? And at the mountains—how they are erected? And at the Earth—how it is spread out?”[116]
“There truly are signs in the creation of the heavens and Earth, and in the alternation of night and day, for those with understanding, who remember God standing, sitting and lying down, who reflect on the creation of the heavens and Earth….”[117]
The teachings of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ not only created an environment conducive to scientific progress, but also helped shaped the intellectual growth of a very important man in the history of science. His name was Ibn al-Haytham, and he is considered one of the world’s first scientists.[118] According to many historians of science, such as David C. Lindberg, Ibn al-Haytham is considered to be amongst the first to have formalised the scientific method with emphasis on systematic experimentation.[119]
Ibn al-Haytham wrote The Book of Optics, which had a huge impact on Europe. Without his formalisation of the scientific method, it could be argued that we would not be enjoying the scientific advancements that we enjoy today.
Ibn al-Haytham was also a student of theology and the Qur’an. He clearly cites the Qur’an as his inspiration to study science and the natural world: “I decided to discover what it is that brings us closer to God, what pleases Him most, and what makes us submissive to His ineluctable Will.”[120]
Many academics recognise Europe’s indebtedness to Islam.[121] Professor George Saliba argues, “There is hardly a book on Islamic civilization, or on the general history of science, that does not at least pretend to recognize the importance of the Islamic scientific tradition and the role this tradition played in the development of human civilisation in general.”[122]
Professor Thomas Arnold was of the view that Islamic Spain facilitated the European Renaissance: “…Muslim Spain had written one of the brightest pages in the history of Medieval Europe…bringing into birth a new poetry and a new culture, and it was from her that Christian scholars received what of Greek philosophy and science they had to stimulate their mental activity up to the time of the Renaissance.”[123]
Perhaps one of the most poignant summaries of the greatness of the civilisation that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ created, is in a speech by the former CEO of Hewlett Packard, Carly Fiorina:
“There was once a civilization that was the greatest in the world. It was able to create a continental super-state that stretched from ocean to ocean, and from northern climes to tropics and deserts. Within its dominion lived hundreds of millions of people, of different creeds and ethnic origins. One of its languages became the universal language of much of the world, the bridge between the peoples of a hundred lands. Its armies were made up of people of many nationalities, and its military protection allowed a degree of peace and prosperity that had never been known.
“And this civilization was driven more than anything, by invention. Its architects designed buildings that defied gravity. Its mathematicians created the algebra and algorithms that would enable the building of computers, and the creation of encryption. Its doctors examined the human body, and found new cures for disease. Its astronomers looked into the heavens, named the stars, and paved the way for space travel and exploration. Its writers created thousands of stories. Stories of courage, romance and magic.
“When other nations were afraid of ideas, this civilization thrived on them, and kept them alive. When censors threatened to wipe out knowledge from past civilizations, this civilization kept the knowledge alive, and passed it on to others. While modern Western civilization shares many of these traits, the civilization I’m talking about was the Islamic world from the year 800 to 1600, which included the Ottoman Empire and the courts of Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo, and enlightened rulers like Suleiman the Magnificent.
“Although we are often unaware of our indebtedness to this other civilization, its gifts are very much a part of our heritage. The technology industry would not exist without the contributions of Arab mathematicians. Leaders like Suleiman contributed to our notions of tolerance and civic leadership. And perhaps we can learn a lesson from his example: It was leadership based on meritocracy, not inheritance. It was leadership that harnessed the full capabilities of a very diverse population that included Christianity, Islamic, and Jewish traditions. This kind of enlightened leadership—leadership that nurtured culture, sustainability, diversity and courage—led to 800 years of invention and prosperity.”[124]
The key reason the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was able to directly influence such tolerant and compassionate societies was because affirming the Oneness of God, pleasing and worshipping Him, was the spiritual and moral basis of his life and the lives of those who loved and followed him. This provided timeless, objective moral grounding to achieve what the 18th century economist Adam Smith claimed was the first nation: “…under which the world enjoyed that degree of tranquillity which the cultivation of the sciences requires….”[125]
The Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ trustworthiness, high moral character and the impact he has had on the world establishes a strong case to claim that he is the final messenger of God. Studying his life and understanding his teachings in a holistic and nuanced way will lead to only one conclusion: he was a mercy to the world, and the one chosen by God to lead the world into Divine guidance and light.
Last updated 30 December 2019. Adapted from my book “The Divine Reality: God, Islam & The Mirage of Atheism”. You can purchase the book here.
References
[1] The name Muhammad is mentioned four times and Ahmad (another one of his names) is mentioned once. See http://corpus.quran.com/search.jsp?q=muhammad and http://corpus.quran.com/search.jsp?q=ahmad [Accessed 24th October 2016].
[2] “Muhammad is not the father of any one of you men; he is God’s messenger and the seal of the Prophets: God knows everything.” The Qur’an, Chapter 33, Verse 40.
[3] The Qur’an, Chapter 81, Verse 22.
[4] The Qur’an, Chapter 53, Verse 2.
[5] The Qur’an, Chapter 48, Verse 29.
[6] Lings, M. (1983). Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources, p. 34.
[7] Ibid, p. 52.
[8] Ibid, pp. 53 – 79.
[9] Watt, W. M. (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 52.
[10] Narrated by Bukhari.
[11] Narrated by Muslim.
[12] Narrated by Muslim.
[13] Zarabozo, Jamaal al-Din. Volume 1. (1999). Commentary of the Forty Hadith of An-Nawawi. Al-Basheer Publications and Translations, p. 270.
[14] Burj Khalifa. (2016). Facts & figures. Available at: http://www.burjkhalifa.ae/en/the-tower/factsandfigures.aspx [Accessed 1st October 2016].
[15] Carrington, D. (2014). Saudi Arabia to Build World’s Tallest Tower, Reaching 1 Kilometer into the Sky. Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2014/04/17/world/meast/saudi-arabia-to-build-tallest-building-ever/ [Accessed 1st October 2016].
[16] Zakariya, A. (2015). The Eternal Challenge: A Journey Through The Miraculous Qur’an. London: One Reason, pp. 69-70.
[17] Narrated by Ibn Abi Shaybah. The chain of this narration stops at a companion of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. Scholars maintain that this narration is sound due to its chain of transmission and the fact that it refers to knowledge of the unseen. Some scholars maintain that, in general, a companion of the Prophet ﷺ would not make a statement concerning eschatology without reference to revealed knowledge, such as the words or teachings of the Prophet ﷺ himself.
[18] Draper, J. W. (1905). History of the Intellectual Development of Europe. New York and London: Harper and Brothers Publishers. Vol 1, pp. 329-330.
[19] See M. M Azami. (1978). Studies in Early Hadith Literature. Indianapolis, Indiana: American Trust Publications.
[20] Narrated by Abu Dawud and Tirmidhi.
[21] Narrated by Bukhari in Al-Adab al-Mufrad.
[22] Narrated by Tirmidhi.
[23] Narrated by Bukhari.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Narrated by Muslim.
[26] Narrated by Tirmidhi.
[27] Ibid.
[28] Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim.
[29] Narrated by Tirmidhi.
[30] Narrated by Bukhari, Muslim, Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah.
[31] Narrated by Muslim.
[32] Narrated by Ibn Hibban.
[33] Narrated by Ibn Majah.
[34] Narrated by Ahmad.
[35] Ibid.
[36] Narrated by Abu Dawud and Tirmidhi.
[37] Narrated by Bukhari, Tareekh al-Kabeer.
[38] Narrated by Tabarani.
[39] Narrated by Bukhari.
[40] Ibid.
[41] Narrated by Ahmad and Tirmidhi.
[42] Narrated by Bukhari.
[43] Narrated by Bukhari, Muslim and Ahmad.
[44] Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim.
[45] Narrated by Bukhari.
[46] Narrated by Muslim.
[47] Narrated by Bukhari.
[48] Ibid.
[49] Narrated by Ibn Majah.
[50] Narrated by Muslim.
[51] Narrated by Tirmidhi.
[52] Narrated by Muslim.
[53] Ibid.
[54] Ibid.
[55] Narrated by Bukhari.
[56] Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim.
[57] Narrated by Bukhari.
[58] Ibid.
[59] Ibid.
[60] Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim.
[61] Narrated by Bukhari.
[62] Narrated by An-Nasai.
[63] Narrated by Muslim.
[64] Narrated by Ahmad.
[65] Cited in Ibn Musa Al-Yahsubi, Q. I. (2006). Muhammad Messenger of Allah: Ash-Shifa of Qadi ‘Iyad. Translated by Aisha Abdarrahman Bewley. Cape Town: Madinah Press, p. 55.
[66] Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim.
[67] Ibid.
[68] Narrated by Al-Bayhaqi, Ibn Hibban, Tabarani and Abu Nu’aym.
[69] Narrated by Muslim.
[70] As-Sallabee, M. A. (2005). The Noble Life of the Prophet. Vol 3. Riyadh: Darussalam, pp. 1707 & 1712.
[71] Narrated by Tirmidhi.
[72] Ibid.
[73] Narrated by Tirmidhi.
[74] Ibid.
[75] Ibn Qayyim, S. (1998). Zaad al-Ma’ad. Edited by Shuayb Al-Arnaout and Abdul Qadir Al-Arnaout Vol 3. Beirut: Mu’assasa al-Risalah, pp. 50-51. An online copy can be accessed at: http://ia801308.us.archive.org/0/items/FP37672/03_37674.pdf [Accessed 1st October 2016].
[76] Narrated by Bukhari.
[77] Narrated by Bukhari, Muslim and Ahmad.
[78] Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim.
[79] Narrated by Ibn Maajah and al-Haakim.
[80] Narrated by Tirmidhi.
[81] Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim.
[82] Narrated by Tirmidhi.
[83] Ibid.
[84] The Qur’an, Chapter 5, Verse 8.
[85] The Qur’an, Chapter 4, Verse 135.
[86] The Qur’an, Chapter 90, Verses 12 to 18.
[87] Ibn Hisham, A. (1955) as-Sira an-Nabawiyya. Cairo: Mustafa Al-Halabi & Sons. Vol 1, pp. 501-504.
[88] Armstrong, K. (1997). A History of Jerusalem: One City Three Faiths. New York: Ballantine Books, p. 245.
[89] Cohen, A. (1994). A World Within: Jewish Life as Reflected in Muslim Court Documents from the Sijill of Jerusalem (XVIth Century). Part One. Philadelphia: The Center for Judaic Studies, University of Pennsylvania, pp. 22-23.
[90] Tabari, M, S. (1967). Tarikh Tabari: Tarikh ar-Rusul wal- Muluk. Edited by Muhammad Ibrahim. Vol 3. 3rd Edition. Cairo, Dar al-Ma’aarif, p. 609. On online copy can be accessed at: https://ia802500.us.archive.org/21/items/WAQ17280/trm03.pdf [Accessed 1st October 2016].
[91] Cited in Walker, C. J. (2005). Islam and the West: A Dissonant Harmony of Civilisations. Gloucester: Sutton Publishing, p. 17.
[92] Narrated by Yahya b. Adam in the book of al-Kharaaj.
[93] Reported by Al-Tabarani in Al-Mu’jam Al-Awsat.
[94] Al-Qaraafi, A. (1998). Al-Furuq. Vol 3. 1st Edition. Edited by Khalil Al-Mansur. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, p. 29. An online copy can be accessed at: http://ia600203.us.archive.org/27/items/Forwq_Qarafy/Forwq_Qarafy_03.pdf [Accessed 1st October 2016].
[95] The Qur’an, Chapter 21, Verse 107.
[96] The Qur’an, Chapter 7, Verse 156.
[97] Cited in Walker, C. J. (2005). Islam and the West: A Dissonant Harmony of Civilisations, p. 17.
[98] Dozy, R. (1913). A History of Muslims in Spain. London: Chatto & Windus, p. 235.
[99] Arnold, T. (1896). The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co., p. 56.
[100] The Qur’an, Chapter 2, Verse 256.
[101] Bonner, M. (2006). Jihad in Islamic History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 89-90.
[102] Hallaq, W. B. (2009). Sharia: Theory, Practice and Transformations. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 332.
[103] Ibn Zanjawiyah, H, S. (1986) Kitab al-Amwaal. Edited by Shakir Fiyadh. Makkah: Markaz al-Malik Faisal, pp. 169-170.
[104] Mansel, P. (1995). Constantinople: City of the World’s desire, 1453-1924. London: Penguin Books, p. 15.
[105] The Qur’an, Chapter 49, Verse 13.
[106] Hafiz ibn Hibban reported in al-Sahih, via his isnad, from Fadalah ibn Ubayd and Baihaqi.
[107] Gibb, H. A. R. (2012). Whither Islam? A Survey of Modern Movements in the Moslem World. Abingdon: Routledge, p. 379.
[108] Toynbee, A. J. (1948). Civilization on Trial. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 205.
[109] Robinson, V. (1936). The Story of Medicine. New York: Tudor Publishing Company, p. 164.
[110] Sabry, W. M., & Vohra, A. (2013). Role of Islam in the management of Psychiatric disorders. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(Suppl 2), S205–S214. http://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.105534.
[111] Badri, M. (2013). Abu Zayd Al-Balkhi’s Sustenance of the Soul: The Cognitive Behavior Therapy of a Ninth Century Physician. Surrey: International Institute of Islamic Thought.
[112] Narrated by Bukhari.
[113] The Qur’an, Chapter 10, Verse 24.
[114] The Qur’an, Chapter 96, Verses 1 to 5.
[115] The Qur’an, Chapter 39, Verse 9.
[116] The Qur’an, Chapter 88, Verses 17 to 20.
[117] The Qur’an, Chapter 3, Verses 190 and 191.
[118] See Steffens, B. (2007). Ibn Al-Haytham: First Scientist. Greensboro, NC: Morgan Reynolds Publishing.
[119] Lindberg, David C. (1992). The Beginnings of Western Science. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 362-363.
[120] Steffens, B. (2007). Ibn Al-Haytham: First Scientist, p. 27.
[121] For details see Al-Djazairi, S. E. (2005). The Hidden Debt to Islamic Civilisation. Oxford: Bayt Al-Hikma Press; Saliba, G. (2007). Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. Massachusetts: MIT Press.
[122] Saliba, G. (2007). Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. Massachusetts: MIT Press, p. 1.
[123] Arnold, T. (1896). The Preaching of Islam, p. 112.
[124] Hewlett Packard. (2001). Carly Fiorina Speeches. Technology, Business and Our Way of Life: What’s Next. Available at: http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/execteam/speeches/fiorina/minnesota01.html [Accessed 10th September 2016].
[125] Smith, A. (1869). The Essays of Adam Smith. London: Alex Murray, p. 353.
